Biomaterials The Intersection Of Biology And Materials Science

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Biomaterials The Intersection Of Biology And Materials Science

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Intended for use in an introductory course on biomaterials, taught primarily in departments of biomedical engineering. The book covers classes of materials commonly used in biomedical applications, followed by coverage of the biocompatibility of these materials with the biological environment. Finally, it covers some in-depth applications of biomaterials. It does all this with an overall emphasis on tissue engineering. Co-authors, Johnna Temenoff and Antonios Mikos, are the 2010 Meriam/Wiley Distinguished Author Award recipients for Biomaterials: The Intersection of Biology and Materials Science.

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Back to the home page | See more details about “Biomaterials: the intersection of biology and matter…” Topics are interdisciplinarity and translational research, with a common goal to advance biomedical engineering. This topic is exemplified in biomaterial-assisted regenerative medicine strategies with interdisciplinary applications in cardiology, renal medicine, bone tissue engineering, immune and neural engineering, broadly classified under the umbrella term of tissue engineering, with applications across a bench to clinic pipeline.

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The biocompatibility of biomaterials depends on tissue-material interactions at the site of implantation that initially rely on favorable interactions between macrophage-biomaterial implantable surfaces – which are then optimized for immunomodulation and eventual clinical translation [Bozinovski 2021]. Biomaterials are developed in accordance with ISO standards to determine their physicochemical characteristics and cytotoxicity, to ensure successful results in clinical trials. These include assessing the foreign body reaction, inflammation, encapsulation and the accumulation of macrophages in the peri-implant zone (Figure 1).

In my previous articles, I have communicated about cell-biomaterial interactions in cardiology, the development of immunomaterials for immune engineering, bio-inspired microfabrication for tissue engineering, and four-dimensional biofunctionalization to biologically inspired artificial tissues for applications in regenerative medicine. This post offers a quick recap on the advantages and primary methods of biomaterial engineering for regenerative repair in the fields of cardiology, bone tissue engineering, renal medicine, and the disciplines of neural and immune engineering.

Ideally, implantable biomaterials must be able to regulate inflammation, vascularization and tissue modeling at the cell-material interface. Macrophage-endothelial cell niches are crucial to regulate the biocompatibility of materials, and this complexity can be tailored to restore homeostasis in various diseases as a new therapeutic strategy of precision medicine [Guan 2023]. Precision medicine is based on the development of disease-specific molecular classification methods that accurately reflect clinical behavior [Yin 2023].

Although interactions between macrophages and endothelial cells during disease progression are widely known, much is still known about the extracellular matrix and its role in the intercellular process relative to cell-biomaterial interactions [Guan 2023], [Boghdady 2021]. Cell-generated forces including tension are fundamental throughout several biological and pathological processes [Ingber 2003], and cell-biomaterial interactions themselves are subject to tension, during biomaterial-assisted cell proliferation and growth to use them as extracellular matrix. Tenable properties allow the study of macrophage-endothelial cell fate, and regulate innate and adaptive immunity to facilitate angiogenesis and regeneration [Guan 2023].

Criteria For Precision Biomaterial Design. Design Parameters Lie On A…

Figure 2: Bone physiology for biomimicry of candidate biomaterials for bone-tissue engineering. Long bones (such as the femur) develop from a cartilage pattern that is progressively mineralized, a process called endochondral ossification. Nature Reviews Materials, image credit: Koons 2020

Hydrogels can be developed with tunable stress relaxation properties to regulate stem cell fate and activity in cell culture, independently of the initial elastic modulus, degradation and cell adhesion density of the material [Chaudhuri 2015]. Bioengineers have exemplified this niche with bone tissue engineering, where cell spreading, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells can be enhanced for the gels to undergo faster relaxation (Figure 2).

Mesenchymal stem cells can also form a mineralized, collagen-I-rich matrix, much like bone, by interacting with rapidly relaxing hydrogels. The

Relaxation is mediated by cell- and extracellular matrix interactions to promote biomaterials design for cell culture. Mechanical stress also can regulate cell function by activating or tuning signal transduction pathways, where mechanical stimuli converts primarily to a chemical response, another aspect to consider when designing biomaterials that respond to mechanical cues [Alenghat 2002].

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In general, smart materials include a sensor to detect an input signal, an actuator as a responsive component for adaptive function, and actuators with four types of integral materials [Nabila 2022], including:

Biomaterials in the form of hydrogels, carriers and scaffolds play a significant role to anchor cells and generate functional tissues [Nguyen 2019]. Material compositions typically include polyglycolic acid (PGA), poly-L-lactic acid (PLA), poly-DL-glycolate (PLGA), polyvinyl alcohol and their derivatives (Figure 3).

Figure 3: The tissue-engineering triad. Scaffolds, cells and bioactive factors are used in isolation or in combination to recapitulate the desired tissue. Image credit: Doblado 2021

A host of emerging, interdisciplinary techniques have lent themselves to engineering modern fabrication methods for basic research and clinical applications in cardiac tissue engineering [Nguyen 2019]. These include 3-D scaffolds to support cardiomyocyte growth and maturation, including efforts for stem-cell based therapy through gene editing to correct gene mutations and discover the genetic molecular clock. Cardiomyocytes rely on cardiac cell alignment to maintain tissue microarchitecture and biological function. Such methods include a combination of topographical sampling, and chemical treatment. In 1997, bioengineer Thomas Eschenhagen pioneered the development of engineered heart tissue by combining cardiomyocytes and noncardiomyocytes in an extracellular matrix to form a cardiac patch for drug screening, disease modeling, and cardiac regeneration [Eschenhagen 1997].

Electroactive Biomaterials Regulate The Electrophysiological Microenvironment To Promote Bone And Cartilage Tissue Regeneration

As with all biomaterial cell interactions, cardiac cells require biomimetic environmental conditions to support early growth conditions to differentiate and bind a scaffold [Majid 2020]. Since the etiology of cardiac disease is also based on genetic-related factors, gene-editing methods can also intervene at the molecular level to regulate the alignment, adherence and differentiation of cells during cardiac tissue engineering [Nguyen 2019]. Such biomaterials are highly biocompatible and include native constructs such as fibrinogen, collagen, alginate and silk as natural sources of healthy biocompatibility, when combined with cells to improve cardiac function after myocardial infarction [Nguyen 2019]. Engineered heart tissues are structural constituents for drug screening, disease modeling and cardiac regeneration to replace myocytes after myocardial infarction, and are suitable for clinical translation [Weinberger 2017].

Natural polymers have excellent cell adhesion and growth properties and are therefore capable of promoting cell-biomaterial interactions, cell adhesion and extracellular matrix deposition suitable for neural tissue engineering [Doblado 2021]. Collagen is a fundamental native constituent that can be combined with proteins and polymers for neural tissue engineering, and is an approved biopolymer for clinical use [Kehoe 2012]. Several biomaterials are of interest for neural tissue engineering, including gelatin nanoparticles, and hyaluronic acid that supports neurite outgrowth to increase survival rates for therapeutic applications in the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system.

As with all scaffolds, biomaterials for neural tissue engineering must be biodegradable and biocompatible without producing an inflammatory response [Doblado 2021]. These materials should maintain porosity to exchange oxygen, nutrients and factors between nerve guidance conduits – to form higher conductive biomaterials for electrical guidance during neural tissue regeneration [Bhangra 2016]. Neurons have a complex anatomy, the biomaterial-guided process of regeneration or repair must accompany significant scientific advances relative to cell-based studies, nanotechnologies and advanced biomaterials, to better understand the nervous system in the laboratory for precision medicine applications [Anderson 2008 ] . A list of native and synthetic biomaterials suitable for neural tissue engineering are listed on Table 1.

Table 1: A) Advantages and disadvantages of natural biomaterials. b) Advantages and disadvantages of synthetic biomaterials for neural tissue engineering. Image credit: Doblado 2020

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Materials underlying bone regeneration and reconstruction are another niche in biomaterial engineering that relies on the combination of biodegradability and biocompatibility. Bone tissues are naturally regenerative, however, bone defects that exceed the critical size threshold of more than 2 cm require assisted healing [Annamalai 2019]. The gold standard treatments for large bone defects

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